Choosing the Right Spike Protection Circuit for Your Project

You want to keep your electronics safe from sudden voltage spikes. Choosing the right spike protection circuit makes a big difference. Surge protector circuits can stop damage before it starts and give you peace of mind. Each spike protection circuit works in its own way, so you need to know which one fits your project. Understanding how surge protector circuits offer protection helps you make smart choices. Good protection means your devices last longer and work better.

Key Takeaways

• Voltage spikes can damage electronics quickly, so using spike protection circuits is essential to keep devices safe and working longer.

• Different surge protectors (Type 1, 2, 3, and 4) protect at various points in your electrical system; using them together offers the best defense.

• Common protection technologies include MOVs, TVS diodes, crowbar circuits, and gas discharge tubes, each with unique strengths for different needs.

• Match your spike protection choice to your equipment’s sensitivity, installation location, and surge risks for effective and reliable safety.

• Always use a layered protection approach with multiple devices to cover all types of voltage spikes and prevent costly damage.

• Regularly inspect and maintain your surge protectors, especially after storms, to ensure they still provide strong protection.

• Avoid common mistakes like ignoring equipment needs, environmental factors, and relying on only one protection layer to keep your system safe.

• For complex or high-risk projects, consult a professional to select and install the right spike protection circuit for your needs.

Why Circuit Protection Matters

Risks of Voltage Spikes

You face many risks when you do not use circuit protection. Voltage spikes can happen at any time. These spikes come from lightning, power grid switching, or even large machines turning on and off. When a surge hits your system, it can cause overvoltage and overcurrent. These problems damage your devices and shorten their lifespan.

A study by IBM found that voltage transients caused 88.5% of computer equipment failures. This means most failures come from spikes and surges, not from normal use. If you do not use surge protectors, you risk losing expensive equipment. Overvoltage protection and overcurrent protection help you avoid these problems.

You also need to think about disruptive surge events. These events can destroy sensitive electronics in seconds. Without the right types of circuit protection, you may face high repair costs and long downtimes. Circuit breakers and surge protectors work together to protect electrical equipment from sudden voltage spikes.

⚡ Tip: Always use overvoltage protection and overcurrent protection to keep your devices safe from spikes.

Benefits of Spike Protection Circuits

When you use spike protection circuits, you protect your devices from damage. Surge protectors and circuit breakers stop overvoltage and overcurrent before they reach your equipment. This means you avoid costly repairs and keep your systems running longer.

Whole-house surge protectors can save you money. For example, one apartment complex faced $90,000 in repair costs from three surge events. Installing surge protection would have cost only $15,000 and prevented most of the damage. This shows how protection against voltage spikes pays off over time.

You also improve system reliability with the right types of circuit protection. Here is a table showing how different methods help:

You can use overvoltage protection, overcurrent protection, and surge protectors to keep your system safe. Circuit protection devices like circuit breakers and surge protectors work best when you use them together. This layered approach gives you strong protection against spikes and surges.

You should also know that circuit protection helps with more than just safety. It keeps your electronics working well, lowers downtime, and saves you money. Using the right types of circuit protection, such as surge protectors and circuit breakers, means you protect electrical equipment and avoid problems from overvoltage and overcurrent.

Types of Surge Protectors

Surge protectors come in several types, each designed for a specific level of protection and installation point. You need to know the main types of surge protectors to choose the right one for your project. The three most common types of surge protective devices (SPDs) are Type 1, Type 2, and Type 3. Each type offers unique protection features and works best in certain applications.

Type 1 Surge Protective Devices

Type 1 SPDs give you the highest level of protection. You install these surge protection devices at the main electrical panel, right where power enters your building. Type 1 surge protectors handle direct lightning strikes and the largest surge currents. They use the building’s grounding system to safely divert high-energy surges away from your electrical system.

You often see Type 1 SPDs in homes, offices, and factories that need strong overvoltage protection devices. These protectors can handle energy levels from 25kA up to 100kA. They protect your entire electrical system, including all wiring and connected devices. If you want to guard against the most powerful surges, start with a Type 1 protector.

💡 Note: Type 1 SPDs are your first line of defense against the biggest surges, like those from lightning.

Type 2 Surge Protective Devices

Type 2 SPDs offer protection against medium-level surges. You install these surge protectors at sub-panels or branch circuits inside your building. Type 2 surge protection devices work well for surges caused by switching operations or indirect lightning strikes. They handle energy levels from 20kA to 75kA.

These protectors are important for layered protection. When you use both Type 1 and Type 2 SPDs, you create a strong shield for your electrical system. Type 2 SPDs protect your appliances and equipment from surges that get past the main panel. They are common in homes, schools, and commercial buildings.

Type 3 Surge Protective Devices

Type 3 SPDs give you point-of-use protection. You plug these surge protectors directly into outlets near sensitive equipment, such as computers, TVs, or gaming consoles. Type 3 surge protection devices handle lower-energy surges, usually between 6kV and 20kV. They focus on protecting your most delicate electronics.

Modern Type 3 SPDs have several performance metrics. They include nominal discharge current, maximum discharge current, and impulse current rating. These protectors also have a maximum continuous operating voltage, which tells you how much voltage they can handle during normal use. Type 3 SPDs meet strict safety standards and are tested with special voltage and current waves.

🛡️ Tip: Use Type 3 SPDs for your most sensitive devices. They add an extra layer of protection right where you need it.

Here is a table to help you compare the main types of surge protectors:

You get the best protection when you use all three types of surge protectors together. This layered approach keeps your electrical system and devices safe from all kinds of surges. Overvoltage protection devices and overcurrent protection devices work with SPDs to give you complete protection.

Type 4 Surge Protective Devices

Type 4 surge protective devices, or SPDs, give you flexible options for protecting your electronics. You use these SPDs in special situations where standard surge protectors do not fit. Type 4 SPDs come as components or assemblies. You often find them inside equipment or as part of a custom-built system.

You can install Type 4 SPDs in control panels, industrial machines, or even inside power strips. These SPDs work well when you need protection close to sensitive parts. You might see them in factory automation, medical devices, or communication equipment. Type 4 SPDs help you protect devices that need extra care.

Here are some key features of Type 4 SPDs:

• You can use them as stand-alone devices or as part of a larger assembly.

• They often combine different technologies, such as metal oxide varistors (MOVs) and gas discharge tubes (GDTs).

• You can find them in both AC and DC systems.

• They offer protection for both power and signal lines.

Type 4 SPDs come in two main categories:

You should know that Type 4 SPDs must meet strict safety standards. Manufacturers test them for performance and reliability. You can trust these SPDs to protect your equipment from voltage spikes.

🛠️ Tip: Always check the compatibility of Type 4 SPDs with your system before installation. Using the wrong type can reduce protection.

You get the most benefit from Type 4 SPDs when you use them as part of a layered protection plan. You can combine them with Type 1, Type 2, and Type 3 SPDs. This approach gives you strong defense at every level of your electrical system.

When you choose Type 4 SPDs, think about your project’s needs. Ask yourself these questions:

• Does your equipment need extra protection inside the device?

• Do you have custom-built panels or machines?

• Are you protecting both power and data lines?

If you answer yes to any of these, Type 4 SPDs may be the right choice. You can talk to a professional if you are not sure which SPD fits your project.

Type 4 SPDs help you protect sensitive and valuable equipment. You can use them in many different settings. When you understand how these SPDs work, you make better choices for your project’s safety.

Spike Protection Circuit Technologies

Metal Oxide Varistors (MOVs)

You often see metal oxide varistors, or MOVs, in overvoltage protection circuits. MOVs act as the first line of defense against overvoltage. When a voltage spike hits, the MOV quickly changes from an insulator to a conductor. This action diverts the surge away from your sensitive electronics. MOVs work best as parallel-connected spds, which means you connect them across the circuit you want to protect.

MOVs respond in nanoseconds, making them ideal for fast overvoltage protection. You can rely on them to absorb large surges and keep working through many events. However, repeated surges and high temperatures can degrade MOVs over time. You should check MOVs regularly and replace them if you see signs of wear.

Here are some key reliability tests for MOVs:

1. Varistor voltage test

2. Clamping voltage test

3. Leakage current test

4. Surge current test

5. Insulation resistance test

MOVs can fail in several ways, such as short circuit, open circuit, or thermal runaway. Good thermal protection helps prevent these failures. You should use proper heat dissipation and regular maintenance to keep your MOVs reliable.

🔎 Tip: Always use MOVs with thermal protection to avoid overheating and ensure long-term overvoltage protection.

TVS Diodes

TVS diodes, or transient voltage suppressor diodes, give you fast and precise overvoltage protection. You use TVS diodes as parallel-connected spds, placing them across the circuit you want to protect. When an overvoltage event occurs, the TVS diode clamps the voltage to a safe level almost instantly.

TVS diodes work well for protecting sensitive devices like microcontrollers, sensors, and communication lines. You can find them in both unidirectional and bidirectional forms. TVS diodes have a low clamping voltage, which means they protect your devices from even small spikes. They also recover quickly after a surge, so your circuit returns to normal operation fast.

TVS diodes do not handle as much energy as MOVs, but they offer better precision. You should use TVS diodes when you need fast response and tight overvoltage control. For best results, combine TVS diodes with other parallel-connected spds for layered protection.

⚡ Note: TVS diodes provide excellent overvoltage protection for data lines and low-voltage circuits.

Crowbar Circuits

Crowbar circuits give you a different kind of overvoltage protection. Instead of clamping the voltage, a crowbar circuit creates a short circuit across the power supply when it detects overvoltage. This action triggers thermal protection or a fuse, which disconnects the power and protects your equipment.

You often use crowbar circuits in power supplies and high-value equipment. They work well as series-connected spds, which means you place them in line with the circuit. Crowbar circuits use components like silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) or gas discharge tubes to detect and respond to overvoltage.

Crowbar circuits offer strong protection, but they shut down the circuit completely during an overvoltage event. You should use them when you want to stop all current flow and prevent damage. Crowbar circuits work best with thermal protection and automatic shutoff features.

Here is a table comparing different spike protection circuit technologies:

🛡️ Tip: Combine parallel-connected spds and series-connected spds for the best overvoltage protection and thermal protection in your project.

Gas Discharge Tubes (GDTs)

Gas discharge tubes, or GDTs, give you strong protection against high-voltage spikes. You find these devices in many surge protection circuits. GDTs use a small glass or ceramic tube filled with gas. When a voltage spike hits, the gas inside the tube ionizes. This process creates a path for the surge to flow safely to ground. You protect your equipment by letting the GDT handle the dangerous energy.

You often use GDTs in circuits that need high surge handling and strong thermal protection. GDTs stay off during normal operation. They only turn on when a spike reaches a certain voltage. This feature keeps your circuit safe and helps with thermal protection. You can trust GDTs to react quickly and absorb large amounts of energy.

GDTs work best in parallel with the circuit you want to protect. You place them across the input lines. This setup lets the GDT shunt the surge away from your sensitive devices. You also see GDTs used with other spike protection devices. For example, you might combine a GDT with a metal oxide varistor for extra thermal protection.

Here are some key advantages of GDTs:

• High surge current capacity

• Fast response to large spikes

• Long life with proper thermal protection

• Low leakage current during normal use

You should also know about the limitations of GDTs. They have a slower response time than TVS diodes. Sometimes, they let through a small spike before turning on. You need to use extra thermal protection to prevent overheating. GDTs can also wear out after many large surges. Regular checks help you keep your thermal protection strong.

💡 Tip: Always pair GDTs with thermal protection devices. This step helps prevent damage from overheating during big surges.

You find GDTs in many places:

• Telephone and data lines

• Power supply circuits

• Industrial control panels

• Outdoor equipment exposed to lightning

GDTs give you reliable thermal protection in harsh environments. You can use them in both AC and DC systems. Many engineers choose GDTs for their strong thermal protection and ability to handle repeated surges.

Here is a table to help you compare GDTs with other spike protection devices:

You should always include thermal protection when you design with GDTs. This practice keeps your devices safe and extends their life. If you want to protect against big spikes and need strong thermal protection, GDTs are a smart choice.

Comparing Surge Protective Devices

Comparison Table

You need to compare surge protective devices before you choose the right protector for your project. The table below shows the main differences between gas discharge tubes, metal oxide varistors, and transient voltage suppressors. Each protector has its own strengths and best-use cases.

📊 Tip: Always check the surge absorption capacity and response speed when you select a protector for sensitive electronics.

Key Differences

You will notice important differences in how each protector works. Gas discharge tubes handle the highest surge currents. You use them when you need strong protection against big spikes, like lightning. MOVs give you a balance between speed and energy handling. They work well as a general-purpose protector in many home and industrial systems. TVS diodes respond the fastest. You use them to protect delicate circuits, such as data lines or microcontrollers.

Recent updates in international standards now require protectors to pass tougher tests. For example, Type 1 protectors must survive multiple impulses with a 10/350 µs waveform. Type 2 protectors must handle high surge currents using an 8/20 µs waveform. Both types must show they can protect your equipment through many surge events. The voltage protection level, or let-through voltage, is now measured more accurately. Lower values mean better protection for your devices.

You should also look at the maximum continuous operating voltage. This value tells you how much steady voltage the protector can handle without failing. If you pick a protector with a low MCOV for a high-voltage system, it may not last long. Always match the protector to your system’s voltage.

• Gas discharge tubes: Best for high-energy surges, slower response.

• MOVs: Good for medium surges, moderate speed, common in power strips.

• TVS diodes: Best for fast, low-energy spikes, ideal for sensitive electronics.

⚡ Note: No single protector fits every need. You get the best results when you use a layered approach, combining different protectors for full coverage.

Selection Guide for Spike Protection Circuits

Assessing Project Requirements

You need to start by understanding your project’s needs before you choose a spike protection circuit. Every project has different risks and requirements. Begin by asking yourself these questions:

• What type of equipment do you want to protect?

• How sensitive is your equipment to voltage spikes?

• Where will you install the circuit protection?

• What is your budget for surge protector circuits?

• Are there any local or national regulations you must follow?

You can use numerical benchmarks to guide your choices. For example, if your equipment is sensitive to surges above 250 volts, you need a circuit protection device that reacts quickly at that level. If your system faces peak surge currents up to 800 amperes, select a spike protection circuit that can handle that load. Some devices can withstand up to 40 surges before replacement. You should also check the surge current waveform, such as 8/20 microseconds, to match your protection to real-world events.

💡 Tip: Not all regions require surge protector circuits by law. Always check local codes to see if protection is mandatory or optional for your project.

Matching Circuit Type to Application

You need to match the right spike protection circuit to your specific application. Different types of circuit protection work best in different situations. For example, if you want to protect sensitive electronics like computers or sensors, you should use TVS diodes. These devices respond very quickly and clamp voltage spikes before they reach your equipment.

If you work with power lines or industrial machines, MOVs or gas discharge tubes offer strong protection against large surges. MOVs can absorb many surges, while gas discharge tubes handle very high-energy spikes. Crowbar circuits work well in power supplies where you want to shut down the system during a dangerous surge.

Research shows that matching the circuit type to your application improves performance. For example, engineers use special matching circuits in energy harvesting systems to boost power output by up to 77.9%. In wireless power transfer, adaptive matching networks help maximize efficiency and reduce losses. You can use similar ideas when you design your own circuit protection. Choose the right topology and components to get the best results for your project.

Here are some examples of matching circuit types to applications:

• Use TVS diodes for data lines and microcontrollers.

• Use MOVs for home appliances and general power circuits.

• Use gas discharge tubes for outdoor equipment and telecom lines.

• Use crowbar circuits for high-value power supplies.

⚡ Note: Always consider the frequency, voltage, and current of your system when you select a spike protection circuit.

Practical Checklist

You can follow this step-by-step checklist to choose the best circuit protection for your project:

1. Identify Equipment Sensitivity

   • List all devices you want to protect.

   • Check their voltage and current ratings.

2. Assess Surge Risks

   • Estimate the size and frequency of possible surges.

   • Use benchmarks like 250 V sensitivity or 800 A peak surge current.

3. Check Installation Location

   • Decide if you need protection at the main panel, sub-panel, or point-of-use.

4. Review Budget

   • Balance cost with the level of protection needed.

   • Remember, better protection can save money in the long run.

5. Understand Regulations

   • Research local codes for circuit protection requirements.

   • Some places do not require surge protector circuits, but using them is always safer.

6. Select the Right Technology

   • Choose TVS diodes, MOVs, gas discharge tubes, or crowbar circuits based on your needs.

7. Plan for Maintenance

   • Schedule regular checks and replacements, especially for MOVs and gas discharge tubes.

8. Test Your Setup

   • Use surge simulators or test equipment to verify your protection works as expected.

📝 Checklist: Print this list and use it every time you design a new spike protection circuit. Careful planning helps you avoid costly mistakes and keeps your equipment safe.

You can protect your devices and systems by following these steps. Good circuit protection starts with careful assessment and smart choices. When you match the right spike protection circuit to your application, you get reliable protection and peace of mind.

Common Mistakes in Circuit Protection

Overlooking Equipment Needs

You might think all circuit protection works the same for every device, but that is not true. Each piece of equipment has its own needs for overcurrent protection and overvoltage protection. If you ignore these needs, you risk serious problems. Many people make mistakes by using the wrong demand factors. For example, if you add 125% to each load without following the right rules, you can end up with circuit breakers that are too big or too small. Oversized circuit breakers waste money and give you a false sense of safety. Undersized ones can trip too often or even cause wires to overheat, which can lead to fires.

When you do not match circuit protection to your equipment, you face real dangers. Here are some common results:

• Equipment damage and long downtime

• Safety hazards like electrical shock, arc flash, or fire

• Widespread outages from poor breaker coordination

• Hard-to-find faults that slow down repairs

• Injuries from not using current-limiting circuit breakers or the right fuses

• Expensive damage from missing surge protection

• Trouble with maintenance if you do not have proper disconnects or overcurrent protection devices

You should always check the trip characteristics and current-limiting features of your circuit breakers. Make sure you follow standards like NFPA 70E and NFPA 79. These rules help you pick the right overcurrent protection and overvoltage protection for your equipment. Good choices keep your system safe and reduce downtime.

Ignoring Environmental Factors

You need to think about where your equipment will run. Environmental factors can change how well your circuit protection works. High temperatures, humidity, dust, and vibration all affect circuit breakers, overcurrent protection, and thermal protection. If you do not consider these factors, your protection devices might fail when you need them most.

For example, thermal protection becomes very important in hot places. Overcurrent protection devices can trip too soon or too late if the temperature is not right. Dust and moisture can cause short circuits or make circuit breakers stick. Always choose circuit protection that matches your environment. Check if you need extra sealing, cooling, or special enclosures to keep your overcurrent and overvoltage protection working.

Inadequate Layered Protection

You might think one layer of circuit protection is enough, but that is a risky mistake. Voltage spikes and overcurrent events can break through a single barrier. If you use only one type of circuit breaker or surge protector, you leave your system open to damage from spikes, overvoltage, and overcurrent.

Real-world events show why you need layered protection. A thunderstorm can send a surge through your home and damage many appliances at once. Businesses have lost servers and money because they did not use enough circuit protection. When you rely on too few layers, you increase the chance that all your protection will fail at the same time. The Swiss Cheese Model explains this well. Each layer has small weaknesses, but when you stack them, you cover those gaps. You should use several independent layers, such as circuit breakers, surge protectors, and thermal protection, to guard against spikes, overvoltage, and overcurrent.

🛡️ Tip: Always use a layered approach with multiple types of circuit protection. This method gives you the best defense against voltage spikes, overvoltage, and overcurrent.

Case Studies: Surge Protectors in Action

Home Electronics

You rely on many electronic devices at home, from TVs to computers. Surge protectors play a key role in keeping these devices safe. When a lightning strike or power surge hits, a surge protector can stop the extra voltage from reaching your appliances. For example, in Florida, a family used a whole-house surge protector. During a nearby lightning strike, their appliances stayed safe while neighbors lost TVs and refrigerators. In Germany, a surge protector on a solar inverter saved the homeowner over 2,000 euros by preventing damage from a grid surge.

Surge protectors that meet the GB/T 18802.1 standard can reduce surge damage by more than 90%. When you install surge protectors in your home, you can also extend the lifespan of your electronics by over 30%. This means fewer repairs and less money spent on replacements.

Here is a quick look at real-world results:

🏠 Tip: Use surge protectors for all your important home electronics. You will save money and avoid the hassle of replacing damaged devices.

Industrial Equipment

Factories and industrial sites face bigger risks from surges. You often see surges from lightning, switching machines, or faults in the power grid. Surge protection devices (SPDs) help keep your machines and control systems safe. SPDs work by staying open during normal operation and closing quickly during a surge to send extra voltage safely to ground.

You should know that three types of SPDs protect industrial equipment:

• Type 1: Handles lightning currents at the main panel.

• Type 2: Stops overvoltage from spreading to machines.

• Type 3: Adds extra protection near sensitive equipment.

Proper installation is important. You need to size SPDs correctly, use good grounding, and keep cables short and straight. Reliable SPDs, like those from LSP or CHENZHU, absorb and disperse surge energy fast. They also work with other safety devices, such as isolation barriers and safety relays, to protect both people and machines. Using SPDs in factories reduces equipment damage, prevents production stops, and lowers costs.

Sensitive Devices

Sensitive devices, such as medical equipment or telecom systems, need special protection. Surge protectors for these devices must respond quickly and handle high voltages. You can see the difference in performance between consumer and industrial surge protectors in the table below:

When you use industrial-grade surge protectors, you get better durability, faster response, and higher safety. These protectors help you avoid downtime, save on repair costs, and meet industry rules. You also protect people from electrical hazards and keep your operations running smoothly.

⚡ Note: Always choose surge protectors that match the needs of your sensitive devices. This step ensures the best protection and reliability.

DIY Projects

You can protect your homemade electronics and small systems from voltage spikes by adding surge protection circuits. Many DIY enthusiasts build their own smart home devices, solar setups, or custom audio systems. These projects often use sensitive parts that can break easily if a surge hits. By using the right surge protection, you keep your hard work safe and working longer.

When you choose a surge protector for your DIY project, look at the technical ratings. Check the joule rating, clamping voltage, and maximum surge current. These numbers tell you how much energy the device can handle and how well it will protect your circuit. For example, a surge protector with a higher joule rating can absorb bigger spikes. The clamping voltage shows the highest voltage your device will see during a surge. Lower clamping voltages mean better protection for sensitive electronics.

Many surge protectors for DIY use come with LED status indicators. These LEDs show if the device is still working. If the light goes out, the surge protector has sacrificed itself to save your equipment. You should check these indicators after storms or power outages. This simple step helps you know when to replace the device and keep your project safe.

Proper installation is very important. Always follow the instructions for mounting and wiring your surge protector. Avoid double tapping wires or making splices in the leads. Make sure you use outdoor-rated protectors if your project sits outside. Regular inspections help you spot problems early and fix them before a surge causes damage.

Here is a table that shows how you can measure the reliability of surge protection in DIY projects:

🛠️ Tip: Always check the LED indicator on your surge protector after a storm. If the light is off, replace the device right away to keep your project safe.

You can build a surge protection circuit using parts like MOVs, TVS diodes, or even small gas discharge tubes. Many online guides show you how to wire these into your project. By following best practices and checking your protection regularly, you make sure your DIY creations last longer and stay safe from unexpected voltage spikes.

You need the right circuit protection to keep your devices safe from overvoltage and overcurrent. Each project faces different overvoltage and overcurrent risks, so you must choose protection that matches your needs. Use the selection guide and comparison table to help you decide. Understanding circuit protection, device types, and technologies gives you better overvoltage and overcurrent protection. For complex or high-risk projects, talk to an expert. Good protection starts with smart choices.

FAQ

What is a voltage spike?

A voltage spike is a sudden increase in voltage. You may see this happen during storms or when large machines turn on. Spikes can damage your electronics if you do not use protection.

How do I know which surge protector to use?

You should check your device’s voltage and current ratings. Look at where you want to install the protector. Use the selection guide and comparison table in this blog to help you decide.

Can I use more than one type of surge protector?

Yes, you can. You get better protection when you use different types together. This layered approach helps stop both big and small surges from reaching your devices.

How often should I replace my surge protection devices?

You should check your surge protectors after big storms or power outages. If you see damage or the indicator light is off, replace the device right away.

Do surge protectors work for both AC and DC systems?

Many surge protectors work for both AC and DC systems. Always check the product label or manual to make sure the device matches your system type.

What happens if I do not use spike protection?

You risk damaging your electronics. Spikes can cause devices to fail, lose data, or even catch fire. Using spike protection keeps your equipment safe and working longer.

Can I install surge protection myself?

You can install plug-in surge protectors for small devices. For main panels or complex systems, you should ask a licensed electrician. Safety always comes first.

See Also

A Comprehensive Guide To Selecting The Right DC-DC Converter

Effective Methods For Testing Diodes Within Electrical Circuits

Basic Principles And Understanding Of Electrostatic Discharge Explained

Essential Procedures You Must Follow When Testing Supercapacitors

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